Ἀντιγόνη

“Antigone” is the third and final installment of the “Oedipus” trilogy, written by Classical Athenian playwright Sophokles. In many ways, the series is a reflection of the environment in which it was written, with several Greek poleis divided politically and geographically by the mountainous terrain of the Greek peninsula. While they were united by Mediterranean trade, able to spread language, religion, and cultural practices, they didn't see themselves as one unified people group until long after becoming Roman provinces. Among these and the home of Sophokles himself, Athens often held much of the power and influence among the others. Their strongest asset was naval and commercial supremacy, which helped spread this influence militarily, diplomatically, scientifically, and culturally throughout the Ancient World. Despite being defeated by Sparta and hegemonized by Makedonia, it would seem Athens won the competition in terms of survival. It's legacy is often seen as the strongest foundation of Western Civilization, in ways that none of the other poleis seem to match in any substantial way. For this reason, it is important to use Classical Athens among the rest of history as a lesson about our world in the 21st Century.

Conflict

“Antigone” contains multiple conflicts, each with different facets. Two found in the play are Man v.s. Man, and Man v.s. Self. These are also external and internal conflicts.

The most prominent conflict is one of Man v.s. Man. After the Theban Civil War, Polyneikes was killed in a duel with his brother, Eteokles. After Thebes claimed victory, there arose two conflicting ideas about what to do with Polyneikes’s body. King Kreon declared that it should be dishonored and given to the animals as meat. Kreon wants to show strength in the face of dismay, and has no intention of doing right by those who brought destruction to Thebes. “I would not count any enemy of my country as my friend-because of what I know, that she it is which gives us our security.” (Sophokles 203-208) Antigone, as his sister, has a familial obligation to honor her brother. “At least he is my brother-and yours, too, though you deny him. I will not prove false to him.” Antigone and Kreon, as two different people, clearly have two opposing viewpoints. Since they are two separate individuals with their own beliefs and ideas, this is considered an external conflict.

While secretly discussing Antigone’s plan outside of the palace gate, Ismene warns her sister not to proceed with the illegal ritual. She counters Antigone’s strong will with excuses that would make it inadvisable to honor her brother. She warns her sister not to accept the same fate as their father, mother, and brothers. Upon hearing that Antigone is willing to die to honor Polyneikes, Ismene responds with, “You ought to realize we are only women, not meant in nature to fight against men, and that we are ruled by those who are stronger, to obedience in this and even more painful matters...I will not put dishonor on them, but to act in defiance of the citizenry, my nature does not give me means for that.” Antigone explains that, as her sister, Polyneikes deserves her honor. “ I know I am pleasing those I should please most.” Yet, Ismene still challenges her, “If you can do it. But you are in love with the impossible...It is better not to hunt the impossible at all.” Ismene may be saying all of this to Antigone, but she is really telling this to herself. Internally, she feels the same obligation to Polyneikes as Antigone, but isn’t willing to face the consequences of fulfilling them. Ismene in internally conflicted. The two opposing viewpoints, in her case, are between one part of Ismene, and another. Hence, this is a Man v.s. Self Conflict.

Themes

There are many themes present in “Antigone”, one of which is Consequentialism v.s. Deontologism. After the Theban Civil War, the brothers Eteokles and Polyneikes had slain each other in a duel. In the aftermath of the battle, King Kreon decreed to honor Eteokles as a hero, while leaving Polyneikes to decompose in the street as a traitor. Their sister, Antigone, feels that Polyneikes deserves to be properly buried. In her deontological perspective, burial is a sacred ritual, and should not fall to the decision of earthly kings. The gods had wished for people to be buried, so it is the right thing to do.

Kreon had just recently become king, and in the aftermath of great catastrophe for Thebes. He wants to maintain power, and to do that, he must focus on earthly consequences and tie up the loose ends of the Civil War. By honoring Eteokles, he gives the people a championed hero to look up to for generations. By letting Polyneikes rot in the street, he provides a demon for Thebes to fear, as well as depicts the Theban government as strong in the face the enemy. This stabilizes Thebes and guarantees Kreon’s power and authority.

Conflict (again…)

"Once you have deliberated and determined that a course of action is wise, never discredit your judgment. Stand squarely behind your decision. Chances are there may indeed be people who misunderstand your intentions and who may even condemn you. But if, according to your best judgment, you are acting rightly, you have nothing to fear. Take a stand" -Epiktetos The Art of Living

Epiktetos was warning against hesitancy and self-doubt. If one doesn’t have the confidence in their own beliefs and ideas to support and defend them, then they will perish. Everyone has their own experiences, ideas, and beliefs, and interpretations. If one and another don’t see eye to eye, conceding defeat won’t be good. As long as they believe that their ideas are morally good, then they should be strong-willed enough to defend them.

This concept comes up in Antigone frequently. For one, it can be used to describe Antigone, and her decision to bury Polyneikes. During her secret conversation with Ismene outside of the Theban palace gates, she proclaims, “Be as you choose to be; but for myself I must bury him. It will be good to die, so doing. I shall lie by his side, loving him as he loved me; I shall be a criminal, but a religious one.” (Sophokles 81-85) Antigone knows that honoring her brother is the right thing to do, and won’t let anything, not even death, prevent her from completing the ritual. Later on, she insists to her sister, “Oh, oh, oh! Shout it out. I will hate you worse for your silence-should you not proclaim it, to everyone.” She is so confident in her decision, that she wants all of Thebes to know.

Another character this applies to is Ismene, who wants to honor Polyneikes, just like Antigone. However, she initially doesn’t believe in herself enough to defy royal decree. She places excuses in front herself, like, “You ought realize we are only women not meant in nature to fight against men, and that we are ruled, by those who are stronger, to obedience in this and even more painful matters.” (Sophokles 70-73)

One final character appropriate to mention is King Kreon, who spoke to his son and heir, Haemon, about his decision to put Antigone (Haemon’s future bride) and Ismene to death. Haemon warned his father not to be too rigid in his ideas. Kreon, before, threatened to kill his own sentries as criminals if they didn’t find the real culprit. While Kreon prefers to show strength in the face of enemies, Haemon explained that the Theban people live in fear of their King, which didn’t make him look good. Haemon also suggested that he listen to and consider advice he gets, even if he is the king.

Gender Inequality

Classical Greece was a male-dominated society, especially in Sophokles’s home city of Athens. This is certainly reflected throughout “Antigone”. Kreon is the king of Thebes, and therefore represents the male establishment. When he asked his son and heir, Haemon, if he supported his decision to put Antigone (his future bride) and Ismene to death, Haemon expressed his loyalty to his father. Kreon then warned his son of women. “Do not, my son, banish your good sense through pleasure in women, since you know that the embrace grows cold when an evil woman shares your bed and home. What greater wound can there be than a false friend? No. Spit on her, throw her out like an enemy, this girl, to marry someone in Death’s house” (Sophokles 699-705) This concept of the powerful, wicked woman was common in Greek culture. Medusa was the temple virgin of Athena who was raped by Poseidon. As punishment for her crime, Athena (despite being a powerful female figure herself) transformed her into a hideous Gorgon and cast her out to live on an abandoned island. Her gaze was enough to turn men to stone. Later on, Kreon defends his masculine pride, in saying, “So we must stand on the side of what is orderly; we cannot give victory to a woman. If we must accept defeat, let it be from a man; we must not let people say that a woman beat us.” (Sophokles 728-731)

Absolutism and Machiavellianism

Within the realms of politics, history, philosophy, and literature, there is a common theme of being ruled without having a say in the decision-making process. There are various words that are used to describe this, each with different, but related denotations, as well as similar connotations.

• Absolutism (n.)- a political theory that absolute power should be vested in one or more rulers
• Totalitarianism (n.)-
• a. centralized control by an autocratic authority
• b. the political concept that the citizen should be totally subject to an absolute state authority
• Dictatorship (n.)- autocratic rule, control, or leadership
• Tyranny (n.)- a government in which absolute power is vested in a single ruler; especially : one characteristic of an ancient Greek city-state

-Merriam-Webster Dictionary

Of course, language is fluid. Each person has their own ideas as to what each word means. However, the purpose of language is to facilitate understanding from communicator to receiver. If there is one word to describe multiple concepts, then confusion would arise for the listener. However, if multiple words all meant exactly the same thing, then that would be unnecessary and inefficient.

Absolutism is the idea that whomever has power, what they say is final. This doesn’t just apply to sole rulers, but any number of people that have power. This word is often associated with the so-called “absolute monarchs” of the “Age of Absolutism”, a period after the era of feudalism. Under the medieval manor system, the nobles of an estate held more power than the kings above them. However, political and societal change during the Protestant Reformation allowed for the likes of Louis XIV Bourbon of France and the tsars of Russia, who felt that God Himself had bestowed the power upon these individuals to lead their countries. Many other leaders can be described as absolutist, like the ancient Egyptian pharaohs, the ensi of Mesopotamia, the Shahanshah in Persia, and even today’s absolute rulers (that are mostly in the Islamic world, but also include the King of Swaziland and the Pope). Kreon of Thebes does fit this definition, since whatever he says is law and punishable by death. However, this association with the divine right of kingship is weaker. If anything, Kreon is criticized for ignoring the wishes of the gods. During Kreon’s interrogation of Antigone, she explains that, “Yes, it was not Zeus that made the proclamation...I did not believe your proclamation had such power to enable one who will someday die to override God’s ordinances; unwritten and secure.” (Sophokles 494-499)

Totalitarianism has the base word “total”, meaning entire or whole. Similarly to absolutism, this refers to all of the power resting in those who wield it. Under totalitarianism, no one can disobey or think for themselves. This is more reminiscent of the regimes of Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Benito Mussolini, or Francisco Franco. Under these authorities, disobedience was as intolerable as under absolute monarchies. However, these people claimed power, not from the divine, but from their own perceived greatness. If anything, this would be a better description of Thebes under Kreon. “Must I rule the land by someone else’s judgement rather than my own?”(Sophokles 792-793) He doesn’t claim authority from the people of Thebes, nor Zeus and the Olympians, but himself.

Dictatorship is interesting, in that its original meaning has evolved much more than the other words. Today, we may use it in a similar fashion to absolutism or totalitarianism, and it was similar. However, it came from the Roman Republic. Normally, Rome would elect two consuls every January. Each month, they’d alternate imperium, or the ability to develop and send laws to the Senate. However, in times of emergency (like a war, famine, etc.), the Senate would appoint one man (because women couldn’t hold political office in Rome) to quickly and efficiently solve any problems that threatened the Republic. This dictator was checked by the Senate, and weren’t allowed to express his power in any way that didn’t avert the given crisis. Kreon could be seen as this. Sure, he was the next in line for the throne and wasn’t appointed by anyone. However, Thebes had just witnessed the loss of their King Oedipus and Queen Jocasta, as well as a civil war that killed both the King Eteokles and the Prince Polyneikes. He needed to stabilize the city-state and return it to normalcy before things got worse. By honoring Eteokles and dishonoring Polyneikes, he provided for the people a championed hero and a powerful enemy. These are useful in officially ending the Civil War, giving them a clear moral compass, and raising public morale.

One last word that’s worth mentioning is tyranny. Today, is has blended with the other three words. Tyranny comes from Classical Greece, from the time of Sophokles. Back then, tyrants were opportunists that used the other classes ('Ελ-“demes”) to gain support for leadership, as opposed to his own. People like Gaius Iulius Caesar and Napoleon Bonaparte come to mind. They promised things like land distribution, meritocracy, and universal suffrage to those of the lower classes, despite being born to elites. Whether they were genuinely concerned for the well being of the masses, or just used anything and anyone they could to gain power, it didn’t matter to the people that supported them. As for Kreon, it’s complicated. For one, he was part of the royal family. However, he never gained the admiration of the people. He used fear to get what he felt was best for Thebes. That being said, Sophokles lived in Athens and actively engaged in Athenian government. Anyone he met in his personal experience that were tyrannical in this manner would’ve likely been the inspiration for Kreon.

Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was a Florentine politician, philosopher, writer, humanist, and diplomat. He advised the powerful Medici family, who had made enough wealth from banking to become the doge of Florence, and later the kings and queens of Tuscany and many other countries throughout Europe. His most (in)famous work is the short piece “Il Principe”, which advised on how to be an effective ruler. According to Machiavelli, the most important job of a politician is to retain their power, and by any means necessary. This is where the (in)famous “ends justify the means” and “‘Tis better to be feared than loved” are from. Despite this grim depiction on politics, many claim he that was, in fact, a republican at heart, and was influenced by Classical Greco-Roman inspirations of democracy and pluralism. In that sense, not even Machiavelli was Machiavellian. Just like Machiavelli, I support that both can be valuable tools to “get the job done”, and one shouldn’t rely completely on one or the other. However, humans are rational beings that can make decisions for themselves. If one is in a leadership position, then “love”, or more accurately, benevolence is more effective. Kreon, before he is convinced otherwise by Τeiresias, is known for harnessing fear to complete his objectives.